张五常：中国经改的致命伤
2008年01月29日 星期二 于 12:51:33 · 张五常 发表在: 经济随想
很不想用上听来是那么严峻的题目，拿开了几次，最后还是采用了。写文章我不磨斧，喜欢开门见山，有话直说。这样的文字读者多，但捱骂却免不了。无所谓，像我这个年纪的学者，说几句违心话不会有机会向自己交代了。
新劳动法惹来的祸，北京的朋友不可能不知道。虽然我早就知道会有大麻烦，可没有想到麻烦会是那么大。工厂倒闭，老板炒员工，员工炒老板而诉之于法，劳、资双方敌对，手法千奇百怪，极具想象力。这一切，不是我事前没有想到，而是没有想到那么严重。这几年从国内跑到外地——尤其是越南——去设厂的炎黄子孙不少，转移有利阵地也。近来传言四起，说因为新劳动法的推出，问津越南者急升。我不反对国内的厂家投资越南或其它廉价劳力之邦。为了生计，或要多赚钱，无可厚非。我反对的是中国推出法例，把投资者赶到越南等地方去。
为什么新劳动法会有这样庞大的杀伤力呢？不是肤浅的问题。三个月前，我跟阔别了十二年的德姆塞茨进晚膳。提到中国的通胀复苏，他说恐怕北京会推出价格管制。我说：「不会的。」他问：「为什么不会？」我回应：「一言难尽，刚才交给你的长文内有解释。」那是我在去年九月完工的《中国的经济制度》的第二稿，用英语，是为高斯动笔的。该文对中国的地区竞争制度有详尽的分析，其中指出一个要点：在县与县之间的激烈竞争下，对地区不利的政策在中国不容易推行。我说担心的是地区没有话事权的政策，例如关于货币的。
新劳动法显然对地区的竞争不利，非常不利，为什么会闯出大祸呢？读者猜到答案吗？我赌你猜不中。我的答案，有两方面，相关的。其一是新劳动法的第十四条，那任职十年后自动改为无固定期合同的，逼使老板回顾数手指，要在新法推出之前采取行动，或起码要考虑怎样「走位」才对。
其二是新法之前的旧劳动法，一般没有严厉执行。不少机构，尤其是那些看似平凡但其实是劳苦大众的米饭班主、我称之为接单工业的，在国际激烈竞争下，利润甚微，历来对旧法忙顾左右。超时工资不超，假日工资却假，等等，劳、资双方你情我愿，大家有工开工，有饭吃饭。看来有点那个，然而，就是在这种若有若无的旧法处理下，中国的劳苦大众——包括苦了数千年的农民——从二○○○年起其收入出现了近于爆炸性的增长。中国经改的奇迹主要就是这一点：什么高楼大厦、高速公路、跨海大桥，等等，皆次要。新劳动法的推出，逼使大家回顾数手指，漠视旧法的行为，面对可能被炒的员工不难旧「债」重提了！这样一来，新劳动法的大名不胫而走，大家得过且过或忙顾左右的日子是过去了。然而，就是在那些得过且过的日子中，贫苦人家的生活水平升得快，破了人类纪录好几条街。
朋友，你做过生意吗？我做过，为了经济研究需要的深入体会，屈指一算，尝试过的行业达十九项之多。我不怀疑刻薄成家的老板存在，但经验说，懂得赚钱或赚得心安理得的雇主，不可能不知道善待员工是黄金定律。员工作出贡献，公司赚到钱，加薪是鼓励，老板的回报可以预期，皆大欢喜，何乐不为哉？困难是做厂或做生意赚钱，谈何容易？靠投资地产或股票的可以碰巧发达，但要落手落脚的玩意，竞争者无数，不善待员工是死路一条。
说过无数次，我们应该帮助那些真的需要帮助的人，但归根究底，那些可以自力更生的人，政府要做的是鼓励他们自力更生，给他们机会自己打上去。昔日的中国扼杀了这机会，于是一穷二白，而今天的人民币升值、禁止数百种来料加工的产品出口、某些进出口税、知识敎育左管右管，等等，也削弱了自力更生的机会。最严重是新劳动法的推出，不仅本身约束了市场的合约自由，大幅提升产出成本，而又因为有人民币升值等局限转变在前，在新法带动下变得多管齐下，加起来是中国的伟大经济改革的致命伤。
这里我要把一个说过的重点重提。中国人多地少，天然矿物乏善可陈，是没有资格搞什么福利经济、最低工资等奢侈政策的。中国有的是人，脑子聪明而又可以刻苦耐劳的人，是我们经济发展的主要本钱了。给他们所有可以自力更生的机会是唯一的可靠出路。西方的福利政策或乱搞一通的劳工法例，目的是把租值转移，一般用于地大物博或产品名牌及发明专利价值奇高的国家。这次新劳动法的推出，导致无数员工被炒及公司关门，证明着我说过的：地球一体化，参与国际竞争的廉价劳力暴升，在中国养活无数低下阶层的企业，赚取到的租值甚微。
那天访问了一位在广东设厂的朋友。他在国内做厂浮沉了好些年，是接单工业的专家。关于新劳动法，他说可幸的是他目前的工厂是新开的，只开了一年多，困难还不大，未雨绸缪，他们正在考虑多方面的应对。听了个多小时后，我教了他一个法门。你猜是什么？是把他厂内的生产过程的所有部分尽可能改为件工制。三十多年前我在香港跑工厂，调查件工合约，一九八三发表了以件工为重心的《公司的合约本质》，该文今天在国际上还屡被引用，行内的朋友视为经典了。件工这回事，不是产出的全部过程都可以用，但好些部分，通常不用件工的，原则上可以用件工，只是计算与审查质量的费用略升少许而已。如果产出过程全部采用件工合约，新劳动法的九十八条全都废了！
想想吧。我是工厂老板，接到定单，可以对员工说：「我要百分之三十作毛利，是厂房、维修、利息、管理、灯油火蜡等需要的。余下来的百分之七十，扣除原料后，你们按件工摊分吧。接不接这张单你们决定好了。」三十多年前香港的某些厂家这样处理，大家相处安然。那些是件工比较容易采用的行业，但我知道，只要接受交易费用略为提升，大部分的工厂可以把大部分的产出过程通过件工合约处理。同样的思维，是原则上，一家工厂可以把不同部门「斩件」，判给员工，让员工作自己的老板吧。这是我一九八三那篇文章的一个含意，触发了行内的「谁是雇主，谁是被雇」之争，打起官司会是很过瘾的。
以件工处理产出，新劳动法管不着。有一个险处。七十多年前的美国，因为最低工资不低，加上工会的极力反对，件工被定为不合法。如果发明新劳动法的有本领在中国废除件工制，那是神州大地的末日，杀上门来再算吧。
2008年1月23日星期三
Longevity May Run in Your Blood
Larger Lipoprotein Particles Linked to Long Life
By Jennifer Warner
WebMD Medical News Reviewed by Brunilda Nazario, MD
Oct. 14, 2003 -- Size matters when it comes to your blood and the secret to long life.
A new study of people with exceptional longevity and their offspring show they have larger-than-normal high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles in their blood. Lipoproteins are particles composed of a protein and a fat component that carry fats such as cholesterol in the blood.
Researchers say this finding may at least partially explain why longevity runs in families.
In fact, previous research has shown that siblings of centenarians (those who live past 100) are eight to 17 times more likely to live past age 100 themselves. The children of parents who grew to a ripe old age also have about 50% lower rates of high blood pressure, diabetes, heart attack, and stroke.
Longevity Runs in the Blood
For the study, published in the Oct. 15 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers looked at 213 Ashkenazi Jewish adults with exceptional longevity (average age 98) and their children and compared them with two age-matched control groups of Ashkenazi Jews and participants from the Framingham Offspring Study.
The participants' medical histories were evaluated and blood samples were taken to analyze their lipoprotein levels and composition.
The researchers found that the HDL and LDL particle sizes were significantly larger in the exceptionally old adults compared with both control groups, regardless of their cholesterol levels.
Large lipoprotein particle size was also typical among the children of exceptionally old parents, but not the age-matched controls.
The study showed this trait was also associated with lower rates of high blood pressure, heart disease, and other health problems that account for a large number of deaths among the elderly.
Researcher Nir Barzilai, MD, of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, and colleagues say the findings suggest that lipoprotein particle size is hereditary and may help promote longevity.
SOURCE: Barzilai, N. The Journal of the American Medical Association, Oct. 15, 2003; vol 290: pp 2030-2040.
© 2003 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved.
By Jennifer Warner
WebMD Medical News Reviewed by Brunilda Nazario, MD
Oct. 14, 2003 -- Size matters when it comes to your blood and the secret to long life.
A new study of people with exceptional longevity and their offspring show they have larger-than-normal high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles in their blood. Lipoproteins are particles composed of a protein and a fat component that carry fats such as cholesterol in the blood.
Researchers say this finding may at least partially explain why longevity runs in families.
In fact, previous research has shown that siblings of centenarians (those who live past 100) are eight to 17 times more likely to live past age 100 themselves. The children of parents who grew to a ripe old age also have about 50% lower rates of high blood pressure, diabetes, heart attack, and stroke.
Longevity Runs in the Blood
For the study, published in the Oct. 15 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers looked at 213 Ashkenazi Jewish adults with exceptional longevity (average age 98) and their children and compared them with two age-matched control groups of Ashkenazi Jews and participants from the Framingham Offspring Study.
The participants' medical histories were evaluated and blood samples were taken to analyze their lipoprotein levels and composition.
The researchers found that the HDL and LDL particle sizes were significantly larger in the exceptionally old adults compared with both control groups, regardless of their cholesterol levels.
Large lipoprotein particle size was also typical among the children of exceptionally old parents, but not the age-matched controls.
The study showed this trait was also associated with lower rates of high blood pressure, heart disease, and other health problems that account for a large number of deaths among the elderly.
Researcher Nir Barzilai, MD, of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, and colleagues say the findings suggest that lipoprotein particle size is hereditary and may help promote longevity.
SOURCE: Barzilai, N. The Journal of the American Medical Association, Oct. 15, 2003; vol 290: pp 2030-2040.
© 2003 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved.
Poisoning Prevention in Home
About 80% of poisonings occur in children who are between the ages of 1 and 4 years. Develop poison prevention habits early, before your child is crawling. Babies grow so fast that sometimes they are crawling and walking before you have time to protect them.
General tips
Never leave a poisonous product unattended around children, even for a moment. Many poisonings occur when an adult who is using a poisonous product becomes distracted by the doorbell, a telephone, or some other interruption.
Be aware of common substances that are poisonous, such as houseplants and cosmetics.
Use childproof latches on your cupboards.
Keep products in their original containers. Never store poisonous products in food containers.
Use "Mr. Yuk" stickers and teach your children to recognize them. Mr. Yuk stickers are available from your local health departments or police department.
Never leave alcohol within sight or reach of a child.
Read product labels for caution statements, how to use the product correctly, and first aid instructions.
Keep the number of your local Poison Control Center near your phone.
Talk with your doctor about including activated charcoal in your first aid supplies at home. Activated charcoal reduces the toxic effect of some poisons.
Household poisons
Do not keep poisons such as drain cleaner, oven cleaner, or plant food under your kitchen sink. Keep them out of the sight and reach of children. Dishwasher detergent is especially dangerous.
Have your home tested for levels of lead if any older leaded paints may still be present. For more information, see the topic Lead Poisoning.
Alcohol
Keep alcohol out of the sight and reach of children.
Educate your children about the effects of alcohol and medicines. Encourage your teenager to avoid alcohol and drugs.
Provide nonalcoholic beverages at parties and meals. Don't give your children the impression that adults need to drink alcohol in order to have a good time.
Medicines
Put all medicines and vitamins out of the sight and reach of children. Acetaminophen, such as Tylenol or Panadol, is a common source of childhood poisoning.
Never call medicines "candy."
Keep medicines in their original labeled containers.
Buy nonprescription medicines in child-resistant packages.
Try to take medicines out of the sight of children.
Do not regularly use medicines to sleep, lose weight, or relax. Try to find nondrug solutions. For more information, see the topic Sleep Problems, Age 12 and Older.
Check the label on the bottle each time you take a medicine to make sure you're taking the correct one.
Check the expiration dates on medicines, and discard old medicines by flushing them down the toilet.
General tips
Never leave a poisonous product unattended around children, even for a moment. Many poisonings occur when an adult who is using a poisonous product becomes distracted by the doorbell, a telephone, or some other interruption.
Be aware of common substances that are poisonous, such as houseplants and cosmetics.
Use childproof latches on your cupboards.
Keep products in their original containers. Never store poisonous products in food containers.
Use "Mr. Yuk" stickers and teach your children to recognize them. Mr. Yuk stickers are available from your local health departments or police department.
Never leave alcohol within sight or reach of a child.
Read product labels for caution statements, how to use the product correctly, and first aid instructions.
Keep the number of your local Poison Control Center near your phone.
Talk with your doctor about including activated charcoal in your first aid supplies at home. Activated charcoal reduces the toxic effect of some poisons.
Household poisons
Do not keep poisons such as drain cleaner, oven cleaner, or plant food under your kitchen sink. Keep them out of the sight and reach of children. Dishwasher detergent is especially dangerous.
Have your home tested for levels of lead if any older leaded paints may still be present. For more information, see the topic Lead Poisoning.
Alcohol
Keep alcohol out of the sight and reach of children.
Educate your children about the effects of alcohol and medicines. Encourage your teenager to avoid alcohol and drugs.
Provide nonalcoholic beverages at parties and meals. Don't give your children the impression that adults need to drink alcohol in order to have a good time.
Medicines
Put all medicines and vitamins out of the sight and reach of children. Acetaminophen, such as Tylenol or Panadol, is a common source of childhood poisoning.
Never call medicines "candy."
Keep medicines in their original labeled containers.
Buy nonprescription medicines in child-resistant packages.
Try to take medicines out of the sight of children.
Do not regularly use medicines to sleep, lose weight, or relax. Try to find nondrug solutions. For more information, see the topic Sleep Problems, Age 12 and Older.
Check the label on the bottle each time you take a medicine to make sure you're taking the correct one.
Check the expiration dates on medicines, and discard old medicines by flushing them down the toilet.
Suburban Lawn Warriors Should Exercise Caution
By Salynn Boyles
WebMD Medical News
March 30, 2001 -- Oil up the lawnmower and start planting those pansies. After months of indoor exile, it's time to get back in the yard. But be careful out there because the pursuit of a killer lawn could be ... well, maybe not deadly, but dangerous.
More than 60,000 children and adults end up in hospital emergency rooms each year due to lawnmower accidents, according to figures from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. These injuries are often serious, with one-quarter of hand and foot traumas resulting in amputations.
And dangers may be lurking in places of which you never thought. A study published in the February issue of Pediatric Emergency Care suggests that those metal lawn edgings used to separate grass from flowerbeds pose a big threat to kids. Between January 1995 and October 1997, 126 children in Denver were treated at area hospitals for lacerations caused by stepping or falling on the landscape edgings.
The vast majority of the injuries (89%) -- mostly cuts to the feet or knees -- were serious enough to require suturing. And one of the injured children was hospitalized. The authors conclude that metal lawn edgings pose a serious risk to suburban children, and they advise against using them.
The typical lawn or garden is filled with many other potential hazards. These include electric garden tools, which should not be used in wet or damp conditions; pool chemicals, some of which can spontaneously combust if contaminated; and pesticides and other chemicals. Approximately 2 million people and countless household pets are affected each year by common household pesticides.
"All kinds of dangerous chemicals are available to the public, but few people ever read the warnings on the bottles to learn how to protect themselves," Mark Bates of Bates Garden Center in Nashville, Tenn., tells WebMD. "Chemicals used in gardening can do a lot of damage to the eyes and lungs. Protective goggles are important, and you need a good filtered mask. A painter's mask won't really protect against noxious fumes."
Many gardening injuries occur when people who have been sedentary all winter overdo it, National Safety Council consultant Alton Thygerson, MD, tells WebMD.
"A good friend of mine reached down to pull a weed and ended up having to have a back operation," says Thygerson, a professor of health sciences at Brigham Young University in Salt Lake City. "Back and other muscle strains are common, and they can be serious."
The backyard grill poses another, often ignored, suburban hazard. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a threat when charcoal grills are used in poorly ventilated areas, and burns are common with both gas and charcoal grills.
"One awful injury that I may see once or twice a summer occurs when people take hot charcoal and dump it on the ground, and then barefoot kids run over it," Darien, Ill., pediatrician Garry Gardner, MD, tells WebMD. "These are often second- and third-degree burns. It's such an obvious danger once it happens to you, but not many people think about it ahead of time." Gardner serves on the American Academy of Pediatrics National Committee on Injury and Poison Prevention.
But lawnmower mishaps account for by far the largest number of serious injuries occurring in America's backyards each spring and summer. The best way to protect against such an injury, experts say, is to follow a few simple rules.
The American Academy of Pediatrics says children 12 and under should not be allowed to operate a walk-behind mower, and they should be at least 14 before using riding mowers. Adults should never take children joy riding on a riding mower, and children should not even be in the yard when a mower is in use. Don't mow the lawn when the ground is wet or damp.
Everyone should wear proper clothing while operating a mower or other powered gardening tools. That includes protective eyewear and sturdy shoes -- no sandals or sneakers. And never use hands or feet to remove grass or debris from mower blades or free a jammed blade. Instead, use a stick or broom handle to do the job.
And if an amputation injury does occur, never assume that a severed body part is too small to reattach, Thygerson says.
"It is important to retrieve the amputated body part and get to a hospital quickly," he says. "Even if it is just the tip of a finger or toe, lay people should not be trying to decide what can and can't be reattached. That is for a doctor to decide."
WebMD Medical News
March 30, 2001 -- Oil up the lawnmower and start planting those pansies. After months of indoor exile, it's time to get back in the yard. But be careful out there because the pursuit of a killer lawn could be ... well, maybe not deadly, but dangerous.
More than 60,000 children and adults end up in hospital emergency rooms each year due to lawnmower accidents, according to figures from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. These injuries are often serious, with one-quarter of hand and foot traumas resulting in amputations.
And dangers may be lurking in places of which you never thought. A study published in the February issue of Pediatric Emergency Care suggests that those metal lawn edgings used to separate grass from flowerbeds pose a big threat to kids. Between January 1995 and October 1997, 126 children in Denver were treated at area hospitals for lacerations caused by stepping or falling on the landscape edgings.
The vast majority of the injuries (89%) -- mostly cuts to the feet or knees -- were serious enough to require suturing. And one of the injured children was hospitalized. The authors conclude that metal lawn edgings pose a serious risk to suburban children, and they advise against using them.
The typical lawn or garden is filled with many other potential hazards. These include electric garden tools, which should not be used in wet or damp conditions; pool chemicals, some of which can spontaneously combust if contaminated; and pesticides and other chemicals. Approximately 2 million people and countless household pets are affected each year by common household pesticides.
"All kinds of dangerous chemicals are available to the public, but few people ever read the warnings on the bottles to learn how to protect themselves," Mark Bates of Bates Garden Center in Nashville, Tenn., tells WebMD. "Chemicals used in gardening can do a lot of damage to the eyes and lungs. Protective goggles are important, and you need a good filtered mask. A painter's mask won't really protect against noxious fumes."
Many gardening injuries occur when people who have been sedentary all winter overdo it, National Safety Council consultant Alton Thygerson, MD, tells WebMD.
"A good friend of mine reached down to pull a weed and ended up having to have a back operation," says Thygerson, a professor of health sciences at Brigham Young University in Salt Lake City. "Back and other muscle strains are common, and they can be serious."
The backyard grill poses another, often ignored, suburban hazard. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a threat when charcoal grills are used in poorly ventilated areas, and burns are common with both gas and charcoal grills.
"One awful injury that I may see once or twice a summer occurs when people take hot charcoal and dump it on the ground, and then barefoot kids run over it," Darien, Ill., pediatrician Garry Gardner, MD, tells WebMD. "These are often second- and third-degree burns. It's such an obvious danger once it happens to you, but not many people think about it ahead of time." Gardner serves on the American Academy of Pediatrics National Committee on Injury and Poison Prevention.
But lawnmower mishaps account for by far the largest number of serious injuries occurring in America's backyards each spring and summer. The best way to protect against such an injury, experts say, is to follow a few simple rules.
The American Academy of Pediatrics says children 12 and under should not be allowed to operate a walk-behind mower, and they should be at least 14 before using riding mowers. Adults should never take children joy riding on a riding mower, and children should not even be in the yard when a mower is in use. Don't mow the lawn when the ground is wet or damp.
Everyone should wear proper clothing while operating a mower or other powered gardening tools. That includes protective eyewear and sturdy shoes -- no sandals or sneakers. And never use hands or feet to remove grass or debris from mower blades or free a jammed blade. Instead, use a stick or broom handle to do the job.
And if an amputation injury does occur, never assume that a severed body part is too small to reattach, Thygerson says.
"It is important to retrieve the amputated body part and get to a hospital quickly," he says. "Even if it is just the tip of a finger or toe, lay people should not be trying to decide what can and can't be reattached. That is for a doctor to decide."
10 Tips for Safe Winter Driving
Experts give their advice for preparing yourself and your car for winter's challenges.
By Sarah Albert
WebMD Feature Reviewed by Louise Chang, MD
Jodi Gilman knows about the perils of winter driving all too well. She got in a very scary accident last winter. "Because it was a sunny day I didn't think there was any black ice," says Gilman, a graduate student in Northampton, Mass.
That all changed when she saw the car in front of her spin out of control. She attempted to step on the brakes, but that didn't work. After a terrifying moment of spinning, she ended up safely in a pit, but not without learning a significant lesson. "There was no distance between our vehicles," she says. Gilman was driving at the speed limit, but given the dangerous conditions the limit was just too high.
For many people, the winter months bring snow, ice, and more darkness than light. All of these factors can translate into more dangerous driving conditions. That's why it's important to take the necessary steps to prepare yourself and your vehicle for winter driving.
Taking those steps are the keys to protecting yourself from injury and accidents, says Sara Weis, a representative from the national American Automobile Association (AAA) offices in Washington, D.C. This involves more than just wearing your seatbelt, although that is a good place to start. Here are expert tips for safely tackling winter roads.
Match Speed to Weather Conditions
A lot of people make the mistake of thinking that the speed limit is always a safe traveling speed in any conditions. "Speed limits are posted for optimal conditions," Weis tells WebMD. "More crashes involving injuries and property damage occur in winter months, and not slowing down is the main concern," she says.
Reducing your speed is the best way to avoid accidents and injuries. This means allowing for extra travel time during your winter workday commute or excursion. You will also need extra time if there is snow and ice to contend with before you step on the gas.
Increase Your Following Distance
Weis says increasing your following distance is also extremely important and a key in preventing collisions. Accidents and injuries often occur because of sudden stops. Leave adequate space between your vehicle and other cars; according to AAA, a following distance of about eight to 10 seconds should suffice.
This will also protect you if the car in front of you is suddenly out of control, as was the case with Gilman. The bottom line: though you should never tailgate, doing so during poor weather is even more dangerous.
Schedule a Checkup for Your Car
You want to make sure your battery has enough juice. Weis says a full battery is required in cold weather. "Battery-related problems are what we see most frequently," says Jason Subocz, the service manager at Pro Lube Oil Change and Tune Up in Northampton, Mass. He recommends that you make sure your battery is fully charged. Also important, says Subocz, is to get your antifreeze checked.
Subocz also recommends that you make sure there is adequate tread on the tires, and check to see that the tires are properly inflated as well. You can have your car checked out at most auto stores and gas stations. You also want to make sure that your headlights and brakes are working properly, says Weis.
Avoid Distractions While Driving
Keep your eyes on the road. Accidents can result from driver distractibility. Studies have found that rubbernecking and cell phone use in cars can put you at greater risk for accidents. During winter months and severe weather, it's even more important that your attention be fully on the road.
Consider Your Age
Your age does matter when it comes to driving because driving-related injuries can spell more serious trouble for older adults. Brittle bones make injuries from accidents more risky for older adults, Weis says. "A younger person can walk away from a crash, but older adults may sustain more serious injuries, so it's important that they are prepared," she says. Both AAA and the American Geriatrics Society have more information about driving safety for older individuals on their web sites, including information that can help you assess whether you should still be driving.
Prepare a Winter Driving Kit for Your Car
Your car should be stocked with certain necessities in case of emergencies -- which may include running out of gas, getting into an accident, getting lost, or having your car break down. Weis says your kit should include blankets, water, a fully charged cell phone, a reflector, kitty litter or salt for ice, and some food.
Get Your Eyes Checked Annually
Annual eye exams are an important part of driving safety. "Fewer hours of daylight means more hours of difficult driving," Perry Binder, MD, an ophthalmologist from San Diego, tells WebMD.
Binder says there is also less contrast on gray days. He warns of the brightness and glare that can appear when driving in snow. "Snow and ice require slower time to react especially because of skidding," says Binder, who agrees with Weis that slowing down and increasing the distance between you and other vehicles is key.
Clear Ice and Snow From Your Vehicle
If there has been a storm, allow the plows to do their job before you head out, Weis says. Have a brush to clear all of the ice and snow from your vehicle before you start driving.
Don't skip the roof of the car, because snow can fall on rear and front windows while you are driving, blocking your vision unexpectedly. Make sure your lights are visible and not covered with snow and ice as well.
You should also warm up your vehicle before you drive, but according to AAA don't do so in an enclosed space like a garage. Car exhaust is a common source of carbon monoxide, and adequate ventilation is necessary to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
Recognize When You Are in No Condition to Drive
The car isn't the only thing that needs to be prepared -- the driver does, too. That's why Weis says you should avoid driving when you don't feel well. If you are tired or have been drinking, steer clear of the wheel.
Share These Tips With Your Teens
Motor vehicle accidents are a leading cause of death among teenagers, according to a study conducted by the National Institutes of Health. It's even more important, therefore, that you discuss winter driving safety with your family if you have teenage drivers.
Remember, it's never too late to prepare yourself and your vehicle for the winter months. Gilman says she got lucky. "I drive much slower now during bad weather, and I keep my distance from other vehicles," she says. She learned the hard way. Hopefully you don't have to.
Published Jan. 9, 2006SOURCES: Sara Weis, spokeswoman, AAA, Washington, D.C. Perry Binder, MD, Gordon Weiss Vision Institute, San Diego. Jason Subocz, service manager, Pro Lube Oil Change and Tune Up, Northampton, Mass. Jodi Gilman, Northampton, Mass.
© 2006 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved.
By Sarah Albert
WebMD Feature Reviewed by Louise Chang, MD
Jodi Gilman knows about the perils of winter driving all too well. She got in a very scary accident last winter. "Because it was a sunny day I didn't think there was any black ice," says Gilman, a graduate student in Northampton, Mass.
That all changed when she saw the car in front of her spin out of control. She attempted to step on the brakes, but that didn't work. After a terrifying moment of spinning, she ended up safely in a pit, but not without learning a significant lesson. "There was no distance between our vehicles," she says. Gilman was driving at the speed limit, but given the dangerous conditions the limit was just too high.
For many people, the winter months bring snow, ice, and more darkness than light. All of these factors can translate into more dangerous driving conditions. That's why it's important to take the necessary steps to prepare yourself and your vehicle for winter driving.
Taking those steps are the keys to protecting yourself from injury and accidents, says Sara Weis, a representative from the national American Automobile Association (AAA) offices in Washington, D.C. This involves more than just wearing your seatbelt, although that is a good place to start. Here are expert tips for safely tackling winter roads.
Match Speed to Weather Conditions
A lot of people make the mistake of thinking that the speed limit is always a safe traveling speed in any conditions. "Speed limits are posted for optimal conditions," Weis tells WebMD. "More crashes involving injuries and property damage occur in winter months, and not slowing down is the main concern," she says.
Reducing your speed is the best way to avoid accidents and injuries. This means allowing for extra travel time during your winter workday commute or excursion. You will also need extra time if there is snow and ice to contend with before you step on the gas.
Increase Your Following Distance
Weis says increasing your following distance is also extremely important and a key in preventing collisions. Accidents and injuries often occur because of sudden stops. Leave adequate space between your vehicle and other cars; according to AAA, a following distance of about eight to 10 seconds should suffice.
This will also protect you if the car in front of you is suddenly out of control, as was the case with Gilman. The bottom line: though you should never tailgate, doing so during poor weather is even more dangerous.
Schedule a Checkup for Your Car
You want to make sure your battery has enough juice. Weis says a full battery is required in cold weather. "Battery-related problems are what we see most frequently," says Jason Subocz, the service manager at Pro Lube Oil Change and Tune Up in Northampton, Mass. He recommends that you make sure your battery is fully charged. Also important, says Subocz, is to get your antifreeze checked.
Subocz also recommends that you make sure there is adequate tread on the tires, and check to see that the tires are properly inflated as well. You can have your car checked out at most auto stores and gas stations. You also want to make sure that your headlights and brakes are working properly, says Weis.
Avoid Distractions While Driving
Keep your eyes on the road. Accidents can result from driver distractibility. Studies have found that rubbernecking and cell phone use in cars can put you at greater risk for accidents. During winter months and severe weather, it's even more important that your attention be fully on the road.
Consider Your Age
Your age does matter when it comes to driving because driving-related injuries can spell more serious trouble for older adults. Brittle bones make injuries from accidents more risky for older adults, Weis says. "A younger person can walk away from a crash, but older adults may sustain more serious injuries, so it's important that they are prepared," she says. Both AAA and the American Geriatrics Society have more information about driving safety for older individuals on their web sites, including information that can help you assess whether you should still be driving.
Prepare a Winter Driving Kit for Your Car
Your car should be stocked with certain necessities in case of emergencies -- which may include running out of gas, getting into an accident, getting lost, or having your car break down. Weis says your kit should include blankets, water, a fully charged cell phone, a reflector, kitty litter or salt for ice, and some food.
Get Your Eyes Checked Annually
Annual eye exams are an important part of driving safety. "Fewer hours of daylight means more hours of difficult driving," Perry Binder, MD, an ophthalmologist from San Diego, tells WebMD.
Binder says there is also less contrast on gray days. He warns of the brightness and glare that can appear when driving in snow. "Snow and ice require slower time to react especially because of skidding," says Binder, who agrees with Weis that slowing down and increasing the distance between you and other vehicles is key.
Clear Ice and Snow From Your Vehicle
If there has been a storm, allow the plows to do their job before you head out, Weis says. Have a brush to clear all of the ice and snow from your vehicle before you start driving.
Don't skip the roof of the car, because snow can fall on rear and front windows while you are driving, blocking your vision unexpectedly. Make sure your lights are visible and not covered with snow and ice as well.
You should also warm up your vehicle before you drive, but according to AAA don't do so in an enclosed space like a garage. Car exhaust is a common source of carbon monoxide, and adequate ventilation is necessary to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
Recognize When You Are in No Condition to Drive
The car isn't the only thing that needs to be prepared -- the driver does, too. That's why Weis says you should avoid driving when you don't feel well. If you are tired or have been drinking, steer clear of the wheel.
Share These Tips With Your Teens
Motor vehicle accidents are a leading cause of death among teenagers, according to a study conducted by the National Institutes of Health. It's even more important, therefore, that you discuss winter driving safety with your family if you have teenage drivers.
Remember, it's never too late to prepare yourself and your vehicle for the winter months. Gilman says she got lucky. "I drive much slower now during bad weather, and I keep my distance from other vehicles," she says. She learned the hard way. Hopefully you don't have to.
Published Jan. 9, 2006SOURCES: Sara Weis, spokeswoman, AAA, Washington, D.C. Perry Binder, MD, Gordon Weiss Vision Institute, San Diego. Jason Subocz, service manager, Pro Lube Oil Change and Tune Up, Northampton, Mass. Jodi Gilman, Northampton, Mass.
© 2006 WebMD, Inc. All rights reserved.
2008年1月20日星期日
美国主流社会的价值取向
早期开拓北美大陆的欧州移民，大致有三种类型：一是在旧大陆遭遇政治和宗教迫害的革新者和以达尔文教派为主的清教徒；二是被开拓新大陆，寻找理想乐园和发财机会诱惑的探险者，理想主义者，包括有新锐意识的商人；三是由于圈地运动和历次欧洲战乱，失地，少地的农民和大批失业的熟练工人。他们或许出身不同，文化水准不同，教养追求不同，但是，飘洋过海，来到北美这块蛮荒的，陌生的，未知的土地时，他们便具有了共同的身分——那就是旧大陆的移民。他们得放下身份架子，忘记自己的出身背景，关系门路，家族历史，为了避免飘洋过海时孤立无助，登上新大陆时孤军奋战，向西部迁徙时身单力孤，无以抵御野兽，土人，自然灾害的侵袭；不得不以平等身份不断地参加一个个组合，民主推举一个个能团结大家，克服困难，以身作则，有助于完成迁徙过程的领导人物，以多数决定的原则制定大家必须遵循的章程和纪律，以有效地实现共同的目的。这些致力于实践，不以先验为主的习惯法则，加上固有国度的文化意识，逐渐决定了美国移民的价值取向。这也就是保持至今的成为一种民族精神，国民传统的美国主流社会的价值取向。
早期登上新英格兰土地的旧大陆移民，在制定法律，组成社会，建立政府的过程中，基本上延续着大英帝国的体制，遵循着英国的习惯法规。再加以新大陆的实际和多数人认可的游戏规则。他们的领袖约翰&S226;温思罗普在登上新大陆时，预言说：“我们将成为整个世界的山巅之城，全世界人民的眼睛都将看着我们，。如果我们在实现这一事业的过程中欺骗了上帝，如果上帝不再象今天那样帮助我们，那么我们终将成为人世的笑柄”。随着约翰登上马萨诸塞海岸的移民，几乎都是遭遇宗教迫害，逃避克伦威尔独裁统治的新教徒，隶属于达尔文教派，亦称清教徒。他们反对偶像崇拜，要求简化繁文缛礼，纯洁教会，实行民主选举的教会共和民主体制，反对教会勒索，也反对专制王权，反对国教，主张宗教信仰独立自由。这样一群具有资产阶级人文主义思想和民主共和意识的移民，在没有王权和专制的北美土地上，开始实践他们的理想。在与大自然，与严酷的环境和形形色色的敌对势力和罪犯与困难的斗争中，逐渐奠定了自己的美国精神，美国生活方式，或者说，美国主流社会的价值取向。
第一，“信仰自救”的动力，和不尚空谈，注重北美实际的务实作风。
` 信仰是一种伟大的精神动力，它可以焕发出人类的巨大潜能和热情，在不可能的环境和条件下创造出人类的奇迹。对于最初登上新英格兰这块土地的清教徒们来说，他们的正教信仰，就是他们战胜一切不可预知的困难，走向未来的精神原动力。清教徒们认为：“我们从不怀疑上帝与我们同在，既然如此，谁能与我们对抗？这一信念使我们得到无比的慰籍，同时帮助我们抵制了所有其他念头”（佛朗西斯&S226;希金斯《新英格兰的种植园》）。为了保证正教的唯一和纯真，最初，新英格兰拒绝接受正教以外的教友登上自己的土地，以免无为地将精力和时间浪费在无休止的教条和教义的论争中。他们所以能超脱神学研究，正是因为他们对清教没有怀疑，也不允许有不同意见，才能一心一意去战胜北美荒野中隐藏的不可预知的危险。在那个年代，他们真正与众不同之处在于他们更感兴趣的不是神学本身，而是神学在日常生活中的应用。他们关心的不是如何有系统地详尽阐明“真理”，而是如何在北美社会体现他们已经懂得的“真理”。
北美是一块疆域模糊，地理真空的蛮荒的土地，有许许多多关于自然的知识，从物候，气象，矿产到人种都需要他们重新去发现，认识，开发。他们没有时间和余力搞什么理论研究，以著书立说，他们需要在实践中去获取真知。寻找机会，开拓创业。这一切，以及北美严酷的生活环境的使然，就造就了美国人不尚空谈的务实作风。
第二，执着地寻求机会，不断地向前赶的拼搏精神。
蛮荒的北美大陆，充满了未知数，也充满了希望和可能的美好前景。十九世纪开始的大规模西部开发，即不是以军队为先导，也不是以政府为主导。而是自发的移民潮。因为那广袤而富饶的大地，充满了机会，使移民有希望通过开发，创业改变自己的命运，侪身于社会上层。这个机会对于每一个白人移民都是对等的。它使旧大陆移民充满了信心。因为对于美国人来说，贫困只应当是通向安适和富裕生活的中间站。按本杰明&S226;富兰克林的说法，是：“对穷人行善的最好办法，不是使他们安于贫困生活，而是引导或驱使他们脱离这种生活”。新大陆充满了各种机会，只要善于抓住机会，立志摆脱贫困，除了最不走运的人，每个移民都有希望获得成功。因此，美国人一生都在拼命向前赶，以最早抓住机会，改变自己的命运和地位。这正是早期西部移民形成的传统。因为十九世纪的“土地热”是以先占为主的原则掀起的。如果，移民们不能抢先到达西部可能的美好土地，好处就可能被别人捞走。虽然路途遥远，危险重重，烈日炎炎，风雨交加，野兽，土人，大自然的灾害随时肆虐着他们的生命。但他们还是义无返顾地向西迁移，把一切都抛在身后，尽可能缩小发生危险的可能性，抓住千载难逢的机会，占有肥沃的土地，开发出美好的未来。美国人的向西迁移，不是直线性的，而是往返流动性的。因为， 他们认为没有什么东西比自由行动更其宝贵。他们总是希望通过自己的流动，来发现他们所要寻找的东西。因此，美国人普遍地重视机会，重视把握时机寻找机会，而并不计较目的本身。这个最富进取精神的民族承认自己总是“会向前闯的”，因为他们不甘愿落在任何民族后面，他们每个人都想赶在别人前头。
第三：他们关于社会，法制的民主理念，是他们摆脱乌托邦式的空想，建设一个新型美国社会的利器。
来自旧大陆的北美移民，要实实在在地在这块陌生的土地上建立自己的理想家园。因为他们是清教徒，他们自然会按照《圣经》上的描绘，来勾画自己未来家园的蓝图。这倒是他们摆脱了任何理想社会的空想，从现实环境和实际利益出发，去维护自己建设中的家园，地契和一切奋斗得来的东西和权益。在北美这块从未开化的土地上生存，即没有经验，又没有任何保障，充满了风险和不可预测的命运。因此，最初，他们乐意遵循来自故乡的现成法律和规章。因为清教民主，平等，不尚空想的教义，促使他们关心的不是如何实现社会的目标，而是如何组织社会；不是如何使社会变得更好，而是如何使社会更有效率。如何确保社会领导者的诚实和自制，以及如何防范政府变得暴虐。他们不厌其烦地制定规则，确定名额和制约方法，在于如何正确地选择领导人和代表；使地方长官，教会，和社会负责人都不能滥用权力，损害自己和人民利益，以确定政治权力的正确范围；在独立以后，他们更关注联邦的体制，职权以至集权的策略方式。诸如此类，是崇信平等，不拘礼仪，信仰自由成了他们大多数人基本的人生准则。
同时，在美国社会萌芽的初期，个人和公众的界限并不明显。组成社会的目的就是为了个人利益，而个人利益唯有通过建立有效的社会组织才能得到保障和维护。在由旧大陆飘洋过海来北美的旅途中，在向西部迁徙的过程中，在开采矿山，建立居民点的实践中，美国移民无时无刻不能离开相应的集体和社会，无时无刻不牵涉到财产利益的划分，保障和各种关系的处理，无时无刻都需要以集体的力量去战胜困难和随时袭来的危险。这一切都都需要建立规章，制定法律，人人遵守，才能衡平和调节。美国刚刚形成的移民社会教育了移民们，不管他们愿意不愿意，法律问题总是逼人而来，似乎无处不在。他们认识到：没有任何东西比永久而适宜的法律，大家都能公认和接受的法律，更能约束人们，共同而有秩序地生活在和平之中。每个人都负有一定的社会责任，每个人都应当对自己所属的社会表现忠诚，法律的神网高悬在每一个人头上。因此，从大英帝国移植来的习惯法则，判例法，就成了美国法律的基础。再辅以移民社团的自警机制，自创法律，以及由此上升的地方法规，最后统一在联邦的判例法里，就形成了美国的法制社会。也即美国人的价值取向，从属于合众国宪法和法规。除非他是无视法规的黑社会分子和罪犯。
第四，笃信，不断的改革进取，是美国社会的活力所在。
改革的活力是一个社会活力所在的源泉之一。如果，一个社会，她的精英和大众都关心她，时刻准备把她改造得更完美，更具有人性，这样的社会，毫无疑问是一个面向未来的不断发展前进的社会。早期新英格兰，以及推之美国大陆的改革运动，可以说是风起云涌，层出不穷，任何一项有益于国计民生的倡议和革新，在新大陆总有热心人为之奔走运作，筹款募捐 ，付诸实施。这表明，在这个国度，总有人不满理想与现实社会的差距，努力想使她更完美。南北战争前三十年，新英格兰就曾发生针砭时弊的革新运动。从倡议建立公立学校，反对关于儿童的恶劣教育条件；到禁毒禁娼，发明和建设城市上下水道，注意公共卫生，反对将触犯法律的少年儿童和成年罪犯同牢关押；以及从善待精神病人，到盲人教育，事无巨细，都有热心者为之关注，服务。到后来，蓄奴主义和废奴主义之间的生死斗争，都是这种改良社会，使之更趋合理的努力。
在美国社会的成型和发展的过程中，改革伴随始终。独立战争使自发的民兵上升成国家供养的军队，是一个国家成熟和自立的标志。把欧洲分工明细，专业具体而微的生产环节变成社会化的大生产，流水线式的作业，建立了现代意义的大工厂，是美国人改革工业体制的结果，建立跨行业，跨国的联营大公司，是美国人的创造（相当一段时间，被我们目为资本垄断，而我们现在欲学习而条件不足） ，从快餐到超市，从电报到无线通讯，从高速公路到信息公路，都是美国锐意革新的结果，且不要说从马汉上校的航空母舰以及制海权理论到如今已在科索沃和阿富汗，第二次海湾战争检验和试验了的军事革命。这就是美国社会保持活力的原因所在，也是社会的价值取向所在。
第五，由发现到发明，创造最大的社会价值和效益
从开发北美大陆，到向西部迁徙的过程中，美国人是发现先于开拓，开拓继以创业。这是美国人注重实践，及时抓住一切机会的能动表现。定居，迁徙，开发，以安身立命的建筑为先，在木材减少，保护森林资源的前提下，聪明的美国商人就从随处可见的山脉身上开发出石材，并将它以机械开采加工，符合建筑需要，开拓出广阔的市场。北美大陆变成肥沃的土地后，由于天气炎热，出产丰厚，就有一个食物保鲜的问题。美国商人为此发明了用天然冰块保鲜的冰箱，并发展了采冰事业，以新机械，整齐划一的裁冰，满足市场需要；由此发明了长途运输，保持恒温的技术。当着新的居民点建立，需要招徕移民以迅速发展新起的城市，美国人就以报纸和广告宣传自己的城市，扩大自己的影响，以至报业极度繁荣。适应不断迁徙的需要，美国人大兴酒店业，发明了轻便便于拆卸的房屋。因为缺少精细工匠，又需要大量工业成品，美国人发明了通用机械，以标准化，格式化解决了自己的这一难题，并使商品得以批量生产。衣著趋向于大众化。这一无时无刻不在发现，发明，创造的社会潮流，导致了美国社会文明的进步，综合国力的增强，国家财富的积累，人民生活水准的持续提高。也是美国富强之本。因此，作为一个美国人更体会到了自己作为这个国度一分子的价值。
美国人重民意，轻权势，重生命价值，轻视物欲和利禄，等等不一而足。本文就不再赘述了。
任何社会都不是十全十美的，美国社会亦然。在主流社会之外，存在着选举黑幕（如水门事件），存在者黑社会，存在着以南方庄园主为代表的坚持传统，等级差别，种族歧视的逆流，并以之成为世界诟病之所在。但本文是学习人家的长处，不是揭示短处，就不再赘笔以为狗尾了。
早期登上新英格兰土地的旧大陆移民，在制定法律，组成社会，建立政府的过程中，基本上延续着大英帝国的体制，遵循着英国的习惯法规。再加以新大陆的实际和多数人认可的游戏规则。他们的领袖约翰&S226;温思罗普在登上新大陆时，预言说：“我们将成为整个世界的山巅之城，全世界人民的眼睛都将看着我们，。如果我们在实现这一事业的过程中欺骗了上帝，如果上帝不再象今天那样帮助我们，那么我们终将成为人世的笑柄”。随着约翰登上马萨诸塞海岸的移民，几乎都是遭遇宗教迫害，逃避克伦威尔独裁统治的新教徒，隶属于达尔文教派，亦称清教徒。他们反对偶像崇拜，要求简化繁文缛礼，纯洁教会，实行民主选举的教会共和民主体制，反对教会勒索，也反对专制王权，反对国教，主张宗教信仰独立自由。这样一群具有资产阶级人文主义思想和民主共和意识的移民，在没有王权和专制的北美土地上，开始实践他们的理想。在与大自然，与严酷的环境和形形色色的敌对势力和罪犯与困难的斗争中，逐渐奠定了自己的美国精神，美国生活方式，或者说，美国主流社会的价值取向。
第一，“信仰自救”的动力，和不尚空谈，注重北美实际的务实作风。
` 信仰是一种伟大的精神动力，它可以焕发出人类的巨大潜能和热情，在不可能的环境和条件下创造出人类的奇迹。对于最初登上新英格兰这块土地的清教徒们来说，他们的正教信仰，就是他们战胜一切不可预知的困难，走向未来的精神原动力。清教徒们认为：“我们从不怀疑上帝与我们同在，既然如此，谁能与我们对抗？这一信念使我们得到无比的慰籍，同时帮助我们抵制了所有其他念头”（佛朗西斯&S226;希金斯《新英格兰的种植园》）。为了保证正教的唯一和纯真，最初，新英格兰拒绝接受正教以外的教友登上自己的土地，以免无为地将精力和时间浪费在无休止的教条和教义的论争中。他们所以能超脱神学研究，正是因为他们对清教没有怀疑，也不允许有不同意见，才能一心一意去战胜北美荒野中隐藏的不可预知的危险。在那个年代，他们真正与众不同之处在于他们更感兴趣的不是神学本身，而是神学在日常生活中的应用。他们关心的不是如何有系统地详尽阐明“真理”，而是如何在北美社会体现他们已经懂得的“真理”。
北美是一块疆域模糊，地理真空的蛮荒的土地，有许许多多关于自然的知识，从物候，气象，矿产到人种都需要他们重新去发现，认识，开发。他们没有时间和余力搞什么理论研究，以著书立说，他们需要在实践中去获取真知。寻找机会，开拓创业。这一切，以及北美严酷的生活环境的使然，就造就了美国人不尚空谈的务实作风。
第二，执着地寻求机会，不断地向前赶的拼搏精神。
蛮荒的北美大陆，充满了未知数，也充满了希望和可能的美好前景。十九世纪开始的大规模西部开发，即不是以军队为先导，也不是以政府为主导。而是自发的移民潮。因为那广袤而富饶的大地，充满了机会，使移民有希望通过开发，创业改变自己的命运，侪身于社会上层。这个机会对于每一个白人移民都是对等的。它使旧大陆移民充满了信心。因为对于美国人来说，贫困只应当是通向安适和富裕生活的中间站。按本杰明&S226;富兰克林的说法，是：“对穷人行善的最好办法，不是使他们安于贫困生活，而是引导或驱使他们脱离这种生活”。新大陆充满了各种机会，只要善于抓住机会，立志摆脱贫困，除了最不走运的人，每个移民都有希望获得成功。因此，美国人一生都在拼命向前赶，以最早抓住机会，改变自己的命运和地位。这正是早期西部移民形成的传统。因为十九世纪的“土地热”是以先占为主的原则掀起的。如果，移民们不能抢先到达西部可能的美好土地，好处就可能被别人捞走。虽然路途遥远，危险重重，烈日炎炎，风雨交加，野兽，土人，大自然的灾害随时肆虐着他们的生命。但他们还是义无返顾地向西迁移，把一切都抛在身后，尽可能缩小发生危险的可能性，抓住千载难逢的机会，占有肥沃的土地，开发出美好的未来。美国人的向西迁移，不是直线性的，而是往返流动性的。因为， 他们认为没有什么东西比自由行动更其宝贵。他们总是希望通过自己的流动，来发现他们所要寻找的东西。因此，美国人普遍地重视机会，重视把握时机寻找机会，而并不计较目的本身。这个最富进取精神的民族承认自己总是“会向前闯的”，因为他们不甘愿落在任何民族后面，他们每个人都想赶在别人前头。
第三：他们关于社会，法制的民主理念，是他们摆脱乌托邦式的空想，建设一个新型美国社会的利器。
来自旧大陆的北美移民，要实实在在地在这块陌生的土地上建立自己的理想家园。因为他们是清教徒，他们自然会按照《圣经》上的描绘，来勾画自己未来家园的蓝图。这倒是他们摆脱了任何理想社会的空想，从现实环境和实际利益出发，去维护自己建设中的家园，地契和一切奋斗得来的东西和权益。在北美这块从未开化的土地上生存，即没有经验，又没有任何保障，充满了风险和不可预测的命运。因此，最初，他们乐意遵循来自故乡的现成法律和规章。因为清教民主，平等，不尚空想的教义，促使他们关心的不是如何实现社会的目标，而是如何组织社会；不是如何使社会变得更好，而是如何使社会更有效率。如何确保社会领导者的诚实和自制，以及如何防范政府变得暴虐。他们不厌其烦地制定规则，确定名额和制约方法，在于如何正确地选择领导人和代表；使地方长官，教会，和社会负责人都不能滥用权力，损害自己和人民利益，以确定政治权力的正确范围；在独立以后，他们更关注联邦的体制，职权以至集权的策略方式。诸如此类，是崇信平等，不拘礼仪，信仰自由成了他们大多数人基本的人生准则。
同时，在美国社会萌芽的初期，个人和公众的界限并不明显。组成社会的目的就是为了个人利益，而个人利益唯有通过建立有效的社会组织才能得到保障和维护。在由旧大陆飘洋过海来北美的旅途中，在向西部迁徙的过程中，在开采矿山，建立居民点的实践中，美国移民无时无刻不能离开相应的集体和社会，无时无刻不牵涉到财产利益的划分，保障和各种关系的处理，无时无刻都需要以集体的力量去战胜困难和随时袭来的危险。这一切都都需要建立规章，制定法律，人人遵守，才能衡平和调节。美国刚刚形成的移民社会教育了移民们，不管他们愿意不愿意，法律问题总是逼人而来，似乎无处不在。他们认识到：没有任何东西比永久而适宜的法律，大家都能公认和接受的法律，更能约束人们，共同而有秩序地生活在和平之中。每个人都负有一定的社会责任，每个人都应当对自己所属的社会表现忠诚，法律的神网高悬在每一个人头上。因此，从大英帝国移植来的习惯法则，判例法，就成了美国法律的基础。再辅以移民社团的自警机制，自创法律，以及由此上升的地方法规，最后统一在联邦的判例法里，就形成了美国的法制社会。也即美国人的价值取向，从属于合众国宪法和法规。除非他是无视法规的黑社会分子和罪犯。
第四，笃信，不断的改革进取，是美国社会的活力所在。
改革的活力是一个社会活力所在的源泉之一。如果，一个社会，她的精英和大众都关心她，时刻准备把她改造得更完美，更具有人性，这样的社会，毫无疑问是一个面向未来的不断发展前进的社会。早期新英格兰，以及推之美国大陆的改革运动，可以说是风起云涌，层出不穷，任何一项有益于国计民生的倡议和革新，在新大陆总有热心人为之奔走运作，筹款募捐 ，付诸实施。这表明，在这个国度，总有人不满理想与现实社会的差距，努力想使她更完美。南北战争前三十年，新英格兰就曾发生针砭时弊的革新运动。从倡议建立公立学校，反对关于儿童的恶劣教育条件；到禁毒禁娼，发明和建设城市上下水道，注意公共卫生，反对将触犯法律的少年儿童和成年罪犯同牢关押；以及从善待精神病人，到盲人教育，事无巨细，都有热心者为之关注，服务。到后来，蓄奴主义和废奴主义之间的生死斗争，都是这种改良社会，使之更趋合理的努力。
在美国社会的成型和发展的过程中，改革伴随始终。独立战争使自发的民兵上升成国家供养的军队，是一个国家成熟和自立的标志。把欧洲分工明细，专业具体而微的生产环节变成社会化的大生产，流水线式的作业，建立了现代意义的大工厂，是美国人改革工业体制的结果，建立跨行业，跨国的联营大公司，是美国人的创造（相当一段时间，被我们目为资本垄断，而我们现在欲学习而条件不足） ，从快餐到超市，从电报到无线通讯，从高速公路到信息公路，都是美国锐意革新的结果，且不要说从马汉上校的航空母舰以及制海权理论到如今已在科索沃和阿富汗，第二次海湾战争检验和试验了的军事革命。这就是美国社会保持活力的原因所在，也是社会的价值取向所在。
第五，由发现到发明，创造最大的社会价值和效益
从开发北美大陆，到向西部迁徙的过程中，美国人是发现先于开拓，开拓继以创业。这是美国人注重实践，及时抓住一切机会的能动表现。定居，迁徙，开发，以安身立命的建筑为先，在木材减少，保护森林资源的前提下，聪明的美国商人就从随处可见的山脉身上开发出石材，并将它以机械开采加工，符合建筑需要，开拓出广阔的市场。北美大陆变成肥沃的土地后，由于天气炎热，出产丰厚，就有一个食物保鲜的问题。美国商人为此发明了用天然冰块保鲜的冰箱，并发展了采冰事业，以新机械，整齐划一的裁冰，满足市场需要；由此发明了长途运输，保持恒温的技术。当着新的居民点建立，需要招徕移民以迅速发展新起的城市，美国人就以报纸和广告宣传自己的城市，扩大自己的影响，以至报业极度繁荣。适应不断迁徙的需要，美国人大兴酒店业，发明了轻便便于拆卸的房屋。因为缺少精细工匠，又需要大量工业成品，美国人发明了通用机械，以标准化，格式化解决了自己的这一难题，并使商品得以批量生产。衣著趋向于大众化。这一无时无刻不在发现，发明，创造的社会潮流，导致了美国社会文明的进步，综合国力的增强，国家财富的积累，人民生活水准的持续提高。也是美国富强之本。因此，作为一个美国人更体会到了自己作为这个国度一分子的价值。
美国人重民意，轻权势，重生命价值，轻视物欲和利禄，等等不一而足。本文就不再赘述了。
任何社会都不是十全十美的，美国社会亦然。在主流社会之外，存在着选举黑幕（如水门事件），存在者黑社会，存在着以南方庄园主为代表的坚持传统，等级差别，种族歧视的逆流，并以之成为世界诟病之所在。但本文是学习人家的长处，不是揭示短处，就不再赘笔以为狗尾了。
《集结号》
不同凡响的军号——评国产战争片
·白 焰·
在人们的印象中，战场上的红旗是飘扬的，军号是嘹亮的。然而在《集结号》影片里，红旗没有飘扬过，军号没有吹响过。尤其那没有吹响过的军号，系结着４７个战士的生命。在１９４８年淮海战役的一个战斗中，九连连长谷子地接受了一项阻击战的任务，他与团长刘泽水约定以集结号作为撤退的号令，集结号不响，连队不撤。预定时间过了，没有号响，战士一个接一个地倒下。谷子地继续率兵奋勇作战。出乎意料的是，勇猛的排长焦大鹏在临死之前说听到了集结号响，劝谷子地带着仅剩的几个弟兄撤退，战士中有人附和有人反对，大家对此产生了分歧。谷子地此时发现友邻部队早已撤退，但坚信没有听到号声。结果，４７名战士终因寡不敌众，全部阵亡。事后，幸存下来的谷子地怀疑是自己忽略了号声，导致战友们枉送性命。进入和平年代，复员的谷子地意外见到当年的司号员小梁子，得知他根本没有吹响集结号，因为团长没有下达命令。
不错，影片的背景是国共内战，内战是民族的最大不幸——兄弟相残、同室操戈。但是，影片没有给谁好谁坏下一个结论、给谁输谁赢作一个交待。其实，影片讲述的不是战争，而是战斗、战士、战友。国民党只是一个敌对符号，内战只是故事的外壳。如果凭此就把影片的主题归纳为同胞间的厮杀，那将是大错特错。
一．战斗
和过去的战争电影相比（比较近的是２００７年的《夜袭》和《强渡大渡河》），《集结号》更为公正地再现了战斗场面的原样。特技效果及其视听冲击把血腥残酷展现在观众眼前，使观众感到震撼。在过去的战争电影里，士兵被打死不过是往地上一躺；军官被打死不过是摔在马下。在《集结号》里，人们看到被打断的手臂、被击穿的脖子、淋漓的鲜血、扭曲的尸体……感官刺激是战争片不可或缺的因素，不然就连大人也跟小孩似的，把打仗看成游戏。
逼真性是影视艺术的基本美学标准。《集结号》对造型、服装、道具、场景、环境等细节的真实以及表演都刻意求真、入微到位。除了战场的逼真，还有时代的逼真，如５０年代解放军的苏式服装和军营里的繁体字。由于这些，影片使观众得到了声色并茂、耳目共悦的视听享受和审美体验。人们常常把逼真性和真实性混同。其实不然——前者是指酷似实际生活，以致以假乱真；后者是指客观上是否发生或存在。影视视听的逼真性并不排斥艺术虚构和创造想象，只要符合生活实质和逻辑。有一处可以挑剔的地方：坚守阵地的战士不知如何保护自己，几乎都是愚蠢地把自己暴露在对方的炮火面前而轻易死去。不知这是虚构，还是真实。《集结号》的来源是杨金远的小说《官司》，编剧是刘恒，导演是冯小刚。
影片的光调适合战斗场面的风格。低调曝光和硬性光影使画面显得阴沉。一反过去战争电影的红色基调，《集结号》的色彩是暗绿的，因而更在情绪上感染观众，更充分地表达了剧情和人物。要知道，战争电影色彩的造型不都在于颜色的绚丽。的确，红色代表旺盛的生命力，常被用来表达革命军队的一往无前。然而，战场上同样充满了晦暗和苦闷。暗绿的色彩适于那样的情绪氛围，也是继《拯救大兵瑞恩》以后，时下战争题材的电影所通用的色彩。
二．战士
血肉横飞的场景是战争片的一个方面，有血有肉的人物是战争片的另一个。《集结号》重笔描述了作战军人的个人内心世界和情感矛盾，比之把军人作为一个整体和概念更能令人沉思、共鸣。再之，影片以士兵为本位，逆反以往的国家领导将领为本位。这是一个很大的突破和进步。这些士兵都是平凡的农民子弟，他们没有闪光的语言，但有朴实传情的台词；他们没有典范英雄的脸谱，但有实实在在的人情味和层次感。也许是头一次，影片告诉大家，人民子弟兵里也有不敢开枪的、尿裤子的、怕死的；解放军正规部队也被打得懵头转向、鬼哭狼嚎。另外，影片也以男人为角度和心理依托。这给女性化的影视媒体多少带来一丝强硬风气。饰演战士的不是电影明星，但他们的表演得体动人，更能让人联想到战争年代。
众知，传统的国产战争片是国家意志的渲染，旨在宣传教育，其主流是爱国主义、遵纪守法、军民鱼水。《集结号》一反常态，毫无畏忌地展现了各种矛盾冲突，如党军冲突（一开头，连长和指导员的争吵），上下级冲突（谷子地对团长没下命令的愤怒），战友之间的冲突（争执是否听到了集结号响），军民冲突（谷子地怒骂地方党员），个人与个人的冲突（谷子地和小梁子在烈士陵园的激撞），个人与集体的冲突（谷子地单挑煤矿工厂）。的确，影片不刻意和谐、团圆，而是着意碰撞、对抗。为此，影片用急促的短镜头和快节奏来凸显碰撞对抗的激烈程度。影片又让人物酣畅地宣泄激情，高声吼叫，有时甚至歇斯底里。也许是军人的特殊气慨，它使人感到痛快，让人获得解气的感觉。
２００７年９月，美国制片人Ｋｅｎ Ｂｕｒｎｓ在电视上公演了他的作品《二战》（Ｔｈｅ Ｗａｒ）。在这部长达１５小时的记录片里，观众是通过士兵的眼界，从里到外、从下向上地观看了那场战争。相反，从外到里、从上到下的历史观显得隔靴搔痒，往往来自高高在上的战略制定部门、指挥将领和统计数字，它不仅抽象而且冷漠。Ｋｅｎ Ｂｕｒｎｓ说得对，战争是当兵的打出来的。《集结号》同样是通过士兵的视野看待战争，它自始至终透露着一股平民气息、平民本色。影片所荟萃的众战士是普通人，说的是普通人的话，想的是普通人的事。有一点不足：所塑造的士兵人物性格（焦大鹏、姜茂才、吕宽沟等）还是不够充分、醒目、鲜明，以致把他们放在一起，很难分出谁是谁。这不关乎演员，而是篇幅有限使然。
三．战友
《集结号》的篇幅有限是因为它讲述两个故事。一是上面讲的阻击战斗，二是谷子地为战友正名。阻击战斗结束后，谷子地受伤并且被解放军当作敌兵俘虏。释放后他又得知，自己原来的部队番号已经被取消；４７名战士被定为“失踪”，而不是烈士。谷子地的后半生就是为死去的战友找回部队、找回应有的荣誉。在影片的结尾，谷子地回到当年发生血战的旧窑场，相信４７具遗骸就在这个窑场下面。他发疯似的挖掘如山的煤矿，无论如何要让真相大白、让尊严复回。最后（时值１９５６年１２月），上级追认他们为烈士并树立了纪念碑。没有飘扬过的红旗终于出现在葬礼，没有吹响过的军号终于由小梁子吹响。
对于为国牺牲的战士，荣誉是待遇，也是一种价值。名不正，言不顺。如果死去的人没有荣誉，那他死不瞑目，因为谁不愿自己的牺牲得到承认和肯定。如果死去的人不仅没有荣誉而且没有名字，那他等于白死，因为世上没有永垂不朽的无名英雄。看着一行行的木制的无名烈士墓牌，谷子地感慨地说：“爹妈都给起了名字，怎么全都成了没名的孩子了？”按此，人们会问，国家征来这些年青人打仗，怎么恢复荣誉全都成了个人的事了？中国军人有“青山处处埋忠骨，何须马革裹尸还”的豪情，但这不等于说，国家没有责任找回他们的忠骨、裹还他们的尸体、为他们正名、让他们有名有姓地安息。《集结号》让观众情不自禁地联想、检讨我们是如何对待自己的烈士、无名英雄和埋葬祭奠场所。毕竟，如何对待在战争死去的人，等于如何对待我们自己。此外，字幕英译有一个错误：无名烈士的无名不是ａｎｏｎｙｍｏｕｓ（匿名），而应该是ｕｎｋｎｏｗｎ。
电影是分门别类的，如喜剧片、恐怖片、西部片等。每一种类型（ｇｅｎｒｅ）的电影都有其固定的程式和惯例。程式和惯例规范着叙事时空和形式技巧。凡是不符合类型片的题材和处理，都被视为具有可能导致失败的风险。类型片又有自己固定的观众，这些观众有其特定兴趣、审美定势、期望趋向。战争电影所界定的叙事情节、人物角色、环境主题、灯光机位、语言对话等，至少具备逼真的武力结构、民族的美学意图、普世的人性导向。这些因素也是衡量创作能力和票房的尺度。如果说大多数中国战争电影仍像战争宣传片，目的是为了激发士气，《集结号》是反省片，目的是让我们找回自己。它并非把战争描写得富有人情，而是用人情描写战争。综合上述，应该说《集结号》迈进了战争类型片这一影界所接受的模式，并且开始培养着一代类型影迷和审视习惯。在这个意义上，先就范，后创新。《集结号》跳出了旧的束缚，走上了新的路子。抑或说，国产战争片更像那么回事了。这是一个伟大的开端，但只是第一步。
·白 焰·
在人们的印象中，战场上的红旗是飘扬的，军号是嘹亮的。然而在《集结号》影片里，红旗没有飘扬过，军号没有吹响过。尤其那没有吹响过的军号，系结着４７个战士的生命。在１９４８年淮海战役的一个战斗中，九连连长谷子地接受了一项阻击战的任务，他与团长刘泽水约定以集结号作为撤退的号令，集结号不响，连队不撤。预定时间过了，没有号响，战士一个接一个地倒下。谷子地继续率兵奋勇作战。出乎意料的是，勇猛的排长焦大鹏在临死之前说听到了集结号响，劝谷子地带着仅剩的几个弟兄撤退，战士中有人附和有人反对，大家对此产生了分歧。谷子地此时发现友邻部队早已撤退，但坚信没有听到号声。结果，４７名战士终因寡不敌众，全部阵亡。事后，幸存下来的谷子地怀疑是自己忽略了号声，导致战友们枉送性命。进入和平年代，复员的谷子地意外见到当年的司号员小梁子，得知他根本没有吹响集结号，因为团长没有下达命令。
不错，影片的背景是国共内战，内战是民族的最大不幸——兄弟相残、同室操戈。但是，影片没有给谁好谁坏下一个结论、给谁输谁赢作一个交待。其实，影片讲述的不是战争，而是战斗、战士、战友。国民党只是一个敌对符号，内战只是故事的外壳。如果凭此就把影片的主题归纳为同胞间的厮杀，那将是大错特错。
一．战斗
和过去的战争电影相比（比较近的是２００７年的《夜袭》和《强渡大渡河》），《集结号》更为公正地再现了战斗场面的原样。特技效果及其视听冲击把血腥残酷展现在观众眼前，使观众感到震撼。在过去的战争电影里，士兵被打死不过是往地上一躺；军官被打死不过是摔在马下。在《集结号》里，人们看到被打断的手臂、被击穿的脖子、淋漓的鲜血、扭曲的尸体……感官刺激是战争片不可或缺的因素，不然就连大人也跟小孩似的，把打仗看成游戏。
逼真性是影视艺术的基本美学标准。《集结号》对造型、服装、道具、场景、环境等细节的真实以及表演都刻意求真、入微到位。除了战场的逼真，还有时代的逼真，如５０年代解放军的苏式服装和军营里的繁体字。由于这些，影片使观众得到了声色并茂、耳目共悦的视听享受和审美体验。人们常常把逼真性和真实性混同。其实不然——前者是指酷似实际生活，以致以假乱真；后者是指客观上是否发生或存在。影视视听的逼真性并不排斥艺术虚构和创造想象，只要符合生活实质和逻辑。有一处可以挑剔的地方：坚守阵地的战士不知如何保护自己，几乎都是愚蠢地把自己暴露在对方的炮火面前而轻易死去。不知这是虚构，还是真实。《集结号》的来源是杨金远的小说《官司》，编剧是刘恒，导演是冯小刚。
影片的光调适合战斗场面的风格。低调曝光和硬性光影使画面显得阴沉。一反过去战争电影的红色基调，《集结号》的色彩是暗绿的，因而更在情绪上感染观众，更充分地表达了剧情和人物。要知道，战争电影色彩的造型不都在于颜色的绚丽。的确，红色代表旺盛的生命力，常被用来表达革命军队的一往无前。然而，战场上同样充满了晦暗和苦闷。暗绿的色彩适于那样的情绪氛围，也是继《拯救大兵瑞恩》以后，时下战争题材的电影所通用的色彩。
二．战士
血肉横飞的场景是战争片的一个方面，有血有肉的人物是战争片的另一个。《集结号》重笔描述了作战军人的个人内心世界和情感矛盾，比之把军人作为一个整体和概念更能令人沉思、共鸣。再之，影片以士兵为本位，逆反以往的国家领导将领为本位。这是一个很大的突破和进步。这些士兵都是平凡的农民子弟，他们没有闪光的语言，但有朴实传情的台词；他们没有典范英雄的脸谱，但有实实在在的人情味和层次感。也许是头一次，影片告诉大家，人民子弟兵里也有不敢开枪的、尿裤子的、怕死的；解放军正规部队也被打得懵头转向、鬼哭狼嚎。另外，影片也以男人为角度和心理依托。这给女性化的影视媒体多少带来一丝强硬风气。饰演战士的不是电影明星，但他们的表演得体动人，更能让人联想到战争年代。
众知，传统的国产战争片是国家意志的渲染，旨在宣传教育，其主流是爱国主义、遵纪守法、军民鱼水。《集结号》一反常态，毫无畏忌地展现了各种矛盾冲突，如党军冲突（一开头，连长和指导员的争吵），上下级冲突（谷子地对团长没下命令的愤怒），战友之间的冲突（争执是否听到了集结号响），军民冲突（谷子地怒骂地方党员），个人与个人的冲突（谷子地和小梁子在烈士陵园的激撞），个人与集体的冲突（谷子地单挑煤矿工厂）。的确，影片不刻意和谐、团圆，而是着意碰撞、对抗。为此，影片用急促的短镜头和快节奏来凸显碰撞对抗的激烈程度。影片又让人物酣畅地宣泄激情，高声吼叫，有时甚至歇斯底里。也许是军人的特殊气慨，它使人感到痛快，让人获得解气的感觉。
２００７年９月，美国制片人Ｋｅｎ Ｂｕｒｎｓ在电视上公演了他的作品《二战》（Ｔｈｅ Ｗａｒ）。在这部长达１５小时的记录片里，观众是通过士兵的眼界，从里到外、从下向上地观看了那场战争。相反，从外到里、从上到下的历史观显得隔靴搔痒，往往来自高高在上的战略制定部门、指挥将领和统计数字，它不仅抽象而且冷漠。Ｋｅｎ Ｂｕｒｎｓ说得对，战争是当兵的打出来的。《集结号》同样是通过士兵的视野看待战争，它自始至终透露着一股平民气息、平民本色。影片所荟萃的众战士是普通人，说的是普通人的话，想的是普通人的事。有一点不足：所塑造的士兵人物性格（焦大鹏、姜茂才、吕宽沟等）还是不够充分、醒目、鲜明，以致把他们放在一起，很难分出谁是谁。这不关乎演员，而是篇幅有限使然。
三．战友
《集结号》的篇幅有限是因为它讲述两个故事。一是上面讲的阻击战斗，二是谷子地为战友正名。阻击战斗结束后，谷子地受伤并且被解放军当作敌兵俘虏。释放后他又得知，自己原来的部队番号已经被取消；４７名战士被定为“失踪”，而不是烈士。谷子地的后半生就是为死去的战友找回部队、找回应有的荣誉。在影片的结尾，谷子地回到当年发生血战的旧窑场，相信４７具遗骸就在这个窑场下面。他发疯似的挖掘如山的煤矿，无论如何要让真相大白、让尊严复回。最后（时值１９５６年１２月），上级追认他们为烈士并树立了纪念碑。没有飘扬过的红旗终于出现在葬礼，没有吹响过的军号终于由小梁子吹响。
对于为国牺牲的战士，荣誉是待遇，也是一种价值。名不正，言不顺。如果死去的人没有荣誉，那他死不瞑目，因为谁不愿自己的牺牲得到承认和肯定。如果死去的人不仅没有荣誉而且没有名字，那他等于白死，因为世上没有永垂不朽的无名英雄。看着一行行的木制的无名烈士墓牌，谷子地感慨地说：“爹妈都给起了名字，怎么全都成了没名的孩子了？”按此，人们会问，国家征来这些年青人打仗，怎么恢复荣誉全都成了个人的事了？中国军人有“青山处处埋忠骨，何须马革裹尸还”的豪情，但这不等于说，国家没有责任找回他们的忠骨、裹还他们的尸体、为他们正名、让他们有名有姓地安息。《集结号》让观众情不自禁地联想、检讨我们是如何对待自己的烈士、无名英雄和埋葬祭奠场所。毕竟，如何对待在战争死去的人，等于如何对待我们自己。此外，字幕英译有一个错误：无名烈士的无名不是ａｎｏｎｙｍｏｕｓ（匿名），而应该是ｕｎｋｎｏｗｎ。
电影是分门别类的，如喜剧片、恐怖片、西部片等。每一种类型（ｇｅｎｒｅ）的电影都有其固定的程式和惯例。程式和惯例规范着叙事时空和形式技巧。凡是不符合类型片的题材和处理，都被视为具有可能导致失败的风险。类型片又有自己固定的观众，这些观众有其特定兴趣、审美定势、期望趋向。战争电影所界定的叙事情节、人物角色、环境主题、灯光机位、语言对话等，至少具备逼真的武力结构、民族的美学意图、普世的人性导向。这些因素也是衡量创作能力和票房的尺度。如果说大多数中国战争电影仍像战争宣传片，目的是为了激发士气，《集结号》是反省片，目的是让我们找回自己。它并非把战争描写得富有人情，而是用人情描写战争。综合上述，应该说《集结号》迈进了战争类型片这一影界所接受的模式，并且开始培养着一代类型影迷和审视习惯。在这个意义上，先就范，后创新。《集结号》跳出了旧的束缚，走上了新的路子。抑或说，国产战争片更像那么回事了。这是一个伟大的开端，但只是第一步。
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